The internationalization of migrant smuggling through the Balkans.

Migrant smuggling has evolved into a complex transnational criminal enterprise, with the Western Balkan route emerging as a critical pathway to the European Union. The phenomenon reveals the ‘glocal’ nature of organized crime: global flows of people moved by transnational networks exploiting local conditions and enablers to generate millions of euros in profits. While the continued improvement in collaboration between law enforcement agencies is encouraging, such efforts need to be significantly intensified, particularly with regard to the identification and seizure of criminal proceeds from human trafficking.

Europol’s latest Serious and Organised Crime Threat Assessment (SOCTA), published in March 2025, has identified the Western Balkan route as one of two primary migration corridors into the European Union. Criminal networks have developed sophisticated methods to facilitate migrant movements along this route, either by guiding migrants across borders or by providing remote instructions. Irregular migrants are transported in a variety of passenger and commercial vehicles, often hidden in fuel tanks, between truck compartments or among goods.¹

Migrants hide in the fields outside of Subotica, Serbia, while they make arrangements with smugglers or find routes into Hungary, an entrance to the European Union.

Photo: Jodi Hilton/NurPhoto via Getty Images

Countries on the Western Balkan migrant route are particularly vulnerable to this illicit activity. Serbia, Montenegro, Bosnia and Herzegovina, and Croatia have become critical transit points, with criminal groups leveraging several strategic advantages. These networks benefit from pre-existing criminal connections, extensive knowledge of the local terrain, and corruption within law enforcement agencies.

Estimates by Europol, Frontex and other international agencies at the forefront of dealing with migration issues indicate that migrant smuggling is on the rise. What distinguishes the current landscape is the increasing involvement of diverse international actors, often drawn from migrant populations. Criminal groups now include smugglers from Iraq, Syria, Afghanistan, Morocco, Algeria, Türkiye and the Netherlands, who collaborate across borders to coordinate the movement of migrants from conflict zones to Europe.² The arrest of a Dutch-Iraqi alleged human trafficker in Bosnia and Herzegovina in May 2024 provides one such example.³

More significantly, the recent dismantling of an alleged migrant smuggling ring in Bulgaria, which led to the arrest of eight people, indicates the crucial role of foreign actors in orchestrating illicit operations along the Balkan route. The network, run by Syrian and Jordanian nationals, operated with considerable sophistication, coordinating the transit of migrants from Türkiye into Bulgaria and further into Europe, charging up to €6 000 per person to be smuggled to Bosnia and Herzegovina, and €4 000 more to be transported to Serbia. These foreign operatives allegedly worked alongside Bulgarian accomplices to facilitate transportation and logistics, demonstrating the collaboration of local and international actors in enhancing operational reach. The network also recruited drivers from Moldova.⁴

In November 2024, a German-led EU operation dismantled a major suspected criminal network, which had since 2021 allegedly engaged in migrant smuggling, arms trafficking and document fraud along the Balkan route. Supported by Europol and authorities from various European countries, including Austria, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Germany and the Netherlands, the investigation led to 25 arrests (including six in Serbia and three in Bosnia and Herzegovina). Three high-value targets were among those arrested. One suspect, an Iraqi believed to lead a related smuggling network, was arrested in the UK under a European arrest warrant from Poland.⁵ The group operated in 20 countries, subcontracting local groups for the transport and accommodation of migrants, primarily Syrians, to final destinations mainly in Germany, the Netherlands and the UK.⁶ The network was also allegedly violent towards migrants and aggressive in protecting its criminal market share, reportedly charging €4 500 to €12 000 per person. Both migrants and smugglers used hawala in Türkiye for money transfers. International law enforcement cooperation revealed a network responsible for facilitating the illicit transport of 750 migrants, but further investigations suggest as many as 2 200 may have been smuggled into Germany, generating more than €3.4 million in illegal profits.⁷

Russians, Belarussians, Ukrainians and other Eastern Europeans are frequently recruited as drivers, exploiting their familiarity with the region’s routes and their ability to blend in.⁸ Arrests in January 2024 in Bosnia and Herzegovina highlight how these foreigners were employed as drivers in operations smuggling migrants.⁹ These individuals also serve as intermediaries, offering accommodation, forged documents and access to bribery networks to facilitate transit. Interestingly, smuggling networks own private companies abroad (including import–export and car rental companies), which they use to interact with other car rental companies in the region, creating a facade to obscure the identity of the renter and their intentions. This ultimately facilitates the use of these vehicles for smuggling migrants.¹⁰

These foreign actors often collaborate with Balkan smugglers to navigate complex borders. For example, coordinated actions between foreign and local groups were crucial in smuggling operations dismantled in Bosnia and Herzegovina in early 2024.¹¹ In November the same year, police from the State Agency for Investigation and Protection conducted a search in Sarajevo and arrested an Afghan citizen on suspicion of human smuggling and organizing a criminal group for this purpose. Since July 2024, the suspected criminal group that the arrested individual allegedly worked for had smuggled more than 250 illegal migrants, primarily of Turkish or Kurdish origin, and unlawfully earned more than €100 000, according to state prosecutors.¹²

Additionally, Turkish smugglers possess expertise in forging Bulgarian passports, with the quality of the forgeries varying based on price, ranging from €1 500 to €5 000. These passports have been used for passing through the Balkan route.¹³

At least 150 migrants are estimated to cross into Serbia daily through illegal border crossings.¹⁴ Data from Serbian police shows that after an intensive operation against smuggling and irregular migration in 2024, attempts via (and migrant numbers in) the north have significantly decreased, while many reception centres have been shut down.¹⁵ Deputy Prime Minister Ivica Dačić confirmed the arrest of six members of an organized criminal group suspected of human smuggling during the Europol operation in November 2024, after a months-long international investigation. Supported by Europol, the probe — which dismantled a suspected smuggling network allegedly run by Syrians — also involved police from Bosnia and Herzegovina, the UK and EU countries.¹⁶

Foreign smugglers are increasingly present in Croatia, directly linked to smuggling operations from the Western Balkan region. More than 10% of all prisoners in Croatia are convicted of offences related to migrant smuggling, among them foreign nationals, including individuals from Bosnia and Herzegovina, Ukraine, Moldova, Georgia, China and India.¹⁷

Modalities of payment for smuggling

Between 1 January and 15 November 2024, the International Organization for Migration (IOM) interviewed 12 817 migrants in Bosnia and Herzegovina, Serbia, Montenegro, North Macedonia, Kosovo and Albania. Approximately 40% of interviewees reported being accompanied by individuals who facilitated at least one border crossing into a Western Balkan country. Smuggling costs and itineraries vary, with most migrants opting for multi-border ‘package’ deals in North Macedonia and Serbia, while single-border payments are more common for entry into Bosnia and Herzegovina.¹⁸

Figure 1 shows prices for the most frequently mentioned packages. Istanbul serves as the primary hub from which migrants enter the Western Balkans.¹⁹

Migrants employ various payment methods for smuggling services. One common arrangement involves migrants paying for specific GPS coordinates that enable them to cross the border irregularly. Once they have successfully crossed, they receive a message containing new instructions and coordinates for the next stage of their journey. Another arrangement sees migrants pay facilitators who accompany them. In this case, the migrants are led to designated border crossings. Upon arriving at locations on the other side, they meet new individuals who offer accommodation and guidance about the subsequent steps in their journey.²⁰

Strengthening partnerships to combat migrant smuggling

Europol has been closely monitoring the rise in migrant smuggling and the increasing involvement of organized criminal groups in this illicit activity, particularly those led by nationals from countries of origin. To tackle this criminal phenomenon through coordinated efforts, in March 2023 Europol established a regional task force that includes Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia, Germany and Slovenia. The task force is dedicated to combating the criminal networks operating along the main migration routes in the Western Balkans.²¹ In 2023, German authorities also reached out to Eurojust for assistance in fostering judicial cooperation among countries participating in the task force and to establish a Joint Investigation Team (JIT) composed of representatives from Germany, Poland, Serbia and Bosnia and Herzegovina, with Austria serving as an operational partner. Additionally, Eurojust established a coordination centre at its headquarters to support the task force and facilitate direct communication among all authorities involved.²²

In April 2024, Europol formed its own Operational Taskforce to smooth collaboration with Austria, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Germany, the Netherlands, Poland, Serbia, the UK and several other European nations. Europol experts analyzed intelligence pooled by this task force to clarify the structure of criminal activities and identify individuals involved in smuggling and related financial operations.²³

In December 2024, Bosnia and Herzegovina initialled an agreement with the European Union to enhance migration management by deploying Frontex officers on its territory. This agreement, which is anticipated to be officially signed later this year,²⁴ cements the country’s role as a vital operational partner in regional and European migration management, representing a crucial step toward more effective and collaborative solutions.

The coordinated efforts of Europol, Eurojust and national authorities highlight the growing importance of a unified approach to combat migrant smuggling, particularly in terms of addressing the role played by organized criminal groups. Establishing operational task forces and joint investigation teams, along with enhanced partnerships with countries such as Bosnia and Herzegovina, has led to significant progress in disrupting criminal networks that operate along key migration routes. In a further effort to enhance collaboration in combating human trafficking, Bosnia and Herzegovina signed a cooperation agreement with the European Union in October 2024 that enables Bosnia and Herzegovina to post a liaison prosecutor to Eurojust, the EU’s criminal justice cooperation.²⁵ To sustain this momentum, deeper research into emerging trends and developments in migrant smuggling is vital, to ensure strategies remain responsive to the evolving tactics of criminal networks.

The role of foreign actors and the complexity of financial systems underscore the persistent transnational security threat posed by migrant smuggling. In 2024, international law enforcement cooperation led to a significant number of arrests; however, smuggling networks have proven highly adaptive. This situation indicates that long-term strategic countermeasures are necessary, rather than relying solely on short-term crackdowns.

To weaken this illicit market effectively, authorities must focus on disrupting illicit financial flows instead of prioritizing arrests alone. Essential actions include tracking and seizing smuggling profits, enhancing cooperation for financial intelligence sharing, and tightening regulations on informal payment systems like hawala and underground banking networks.

Establishing joint financial task forces, improving sanctions against enablers and reinforcing anti-money laundering frameworks are also crucial strategies. Collectively, these measures will help reduce the economic incentives that sustain smuggling networks. Without a consistent focus on financial disruption, the profitability of migrant smuggling will continue to threaten security in the EU and the Western Balkans.

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