Indoor cannabis cultivation is a growing industry in Kosovo.

Cannabis is the most-consumed illicit drug in the Western Balkans and the EU, with the cannabis trade accounting for around 38% of the retail market for illicit drugs in the EU.¹ Globally, the growth in indoor cultivation has surpassed that of outdoor cultivation.² Criminal groups from the Western Balkans are increasingly involved in indoor cannabis cultivation in Europe.³

In the Global Organized Crime Index 2021, Kosovo – a destination and transit country for illicit drugs – scored 5.5 on the illicit cannabis trade, a score higher than the global (5.10) and European (4.88) averages and slightly lower than the Western Balkans average (5.90).⁴ Cultivation of cannabis has been a relatively rare crime in Kosovo, prevalent mainly in remote areas near Peja, Gjakova, Podujeva, Gjilan and Suhareka.⁵ While there were attempts to cultivate large quantities of cannabis outdoors, Kosovo police were able to identify plantations at an early stage and dismantle crime groups. The police did this despite limited capacities, including a lack of helicopters and drones.⁶ Indoor cannabis cultivation has been even rarer and has mainly included cases of cultivation in apartments for personal use.

From 2019 to 2022, 3 990 drug trafficking cases were reported in Kosovo, for which 4 267 people were arrested. Only 2.6% of these cases and 2.1% of people arrested were related to the cultivation of cannabis (indoors and outdoors).⁷ However, since 2022 there has been a trend towards the detection of more cannabis laboratories and increased arrests. In 2022, police found 10 laboratories and arrested 28 people. These were the highest numbers of arrests and laboratories detected since 2019, apparently due to the increasing number of such labs as well as more intense police pursuit.⁸ Although most of the cannabis produced indoors is aimed at foreign markets in Europe and Turkey (where it is often exchanged for heroin), small quantities are also sold on the local market.⁹

Figure 1 Number of cannabis laboratories detected and people arrested for cannabis cultivation, 2019–2022.

Source: Kosovo Police

Several factors have led to the higher rate of indoor cannabis cultivation in Kosovo. Intensified operations of the Albanian State Police to dismantle outdoor cannabis production in Albania have made it more difficult to produce and smuggle cannabis from Albania. This has led to smaller quantities being smuggled into the region at a higher price. As Kosovo is both a destination and transit country for the drug, the price of cannabis started increasing yearly, particularly since 2019.¹⁰ So far, no Albanian nationals have been arrested in cases of indoor cannabis cultivation, although several were arrested for trafficking drugs in Kosovo.

Another factor is that cannabis cultivated indoors has a higher percentage of tetrahydrocannabinol (THC).¹¹ Data from European countries shows that the potency and price of cannabis have increased since 2006.¹² Globally, the growth in indoor cannabis cultivation has surpassed that of outdoor cultivation¹³ and thus there is an increasing demand for cannabis cultivated indoors in Kosovo, Europe and elsewhere.¹⁴ In addition, profit generated from indoor cultivation is higher compared to outdoor cultivation, as it produces higher yields and faster growth – up to six harvests per year.¹⁵ On Kosovo’s domestic market, the wholesale price of 1 kilogram of cannabis produced indoors is between €2 000 and €2 500, compared to €800 to €1 600 per kilogram of cannabis produced outdoors. In the region, indoor cannabis is priced at around €3 000; in Turkey, it reaches almost €6 000 per kilogram.

There is also a lower risk of detection for laboratories compared to outdoor cannabis plantations.¹⁶ Not only is it easier to protect indoor plantations, but technology enables growers to remotely control watering and temperature and monitor lab security through cameras. It also requires fewer visits to the location, which limits growers’ exposure to law enforcement and neighbours. In contrast, outside plants are subjected to variable weather conditions that can affect yield, are visible despite often being in remote areas and require more in-person visits.

Northern Kosovo has been a hotspot for crime, smuggling of licit and illicit goods, and illegal cryptocurrency mining, and has provided a haven for criminals and fugitives. ¹⁷ Despite continuous efforts by government institutions and law enforcement agencies, the area remains largely uncontrolled. Territorial integrity is one of the 12 building blocks for resilience to organized crime measured in the Global Organized Crime Index, on which Kosovo scored only 3.5 points out of 10 – the lowest in the Western Balkans.¹⁸ Kosovo’s lack of effective control of its territory in the north, combined with free electricity, proximity to Serbia and cooperation with criminal groups there have enabled the growth of cannabis laboratories in the region.¹⁹

The legalization of cannabis production in North Macedonia and the production of hemp extracts for medical purposes has created knowledge of and expertise in establishing laboratories. There is suspicion that some engineers from North Macedonia who were arrested in Kosovo provided professional support in setting up laboratories there.²⁰ In addition, 50 kilograms of cannabis from North Macedonia were confiscated in Kosovo in 2020. It is believed that it was smuggled from legal laboratories in North Macedonia.²¹ The fact that 1.5 tonnes of cannabis were stolen from licensed warehouses in North Macedonia in 2022 indicates that legally produced cannabis is being diverted to illicit markets at home or abroad.²²

Lastly, despite restrictions on movement during the COVID-19 pandemic, organized criminal groups in the Western Balkans proved resilient, adapting their operating methods to deal with disruptions to their illicit business model.²³ Although less cannabis appears to have been available on the market during the first months of lockdown,²⁴ cannabis consumption grew due to more frequent and intensive use.²⁵ Since the pandemic further increased inequality and limited employment opportunities, it may have pushed some people into drug cultivation and trafficking.²⁶ Thus, it appears that the pandemic has contributed to the increase in indoor cannabis cultivation in Kosovo.

Figure 2 Factors influencing indoor cannabis cultivation in Kosovo.

In 2019–2021, most of the four laboratories detected were small ones located in Pristina; in 2022, half of the 10 detected laboratories were found in the north of Kosovo.²⁷ It is believed that the laboratories in the north were created in late 2021 and early 2022.²⁸ Their detection was a result of increased presence and operations conducted by police and customs officials, particularly to curb smuggling of illicit goods and illegal cryptocurrency mining. Of the cannabis plants and cannabis seized in laboratories across Kosovo in 2019–2022, 79% of plants and 91% of cannabis were confiscated in the north.²⁹ The lab equipment originated in Kosovo, North Macedonia and Serbia.³⁰

Figure 3 Detected laboratories by municipality.

Source: Kosovo Police and GI-TOC estimations

The Kosovo police lack the capacity and experts necessary to determine the value of seized cannabis plants and equipment used in the illegal laboratories; police reports show only an approximate value of cannabis on the market in Kosovo.³¹ Based on police estimates, the total value of cannabis and equipment seized in 2019–2022 is between €24 and €28 million.³² Kosovo’s prime minister has stated that the five illicit laboratories detected in the north are valued at several hundred million euros, an overestimation in discrepancy with official records of each operation.³³

One of the most sophisticated laboratories was identified in May 2022 near the Izvor border crossing point with Serbia. The 9 084 cannabis plants confiscated there are assumed to be the second yield.³⁴ This lab had advanced equipment and technology, such as remote-controlled watering and ventilation, as well as surveillance cameras, which obviated the need for frequent visits to the 1 200-square metre facility.³⁵ The estimated value of the lab and its equipment is close to €1 million.³⁶ Initially, the police assumed that the facility was being used for illegal cryptocurrency mining due to the noise caused by the ventilation system. They conducted a joint operation with customs officers, during which they were shot at with firearms; the perpetrators managed to escape.³⁷ Suspects in this case have been identified but not yet arrested, as they have reportedly fled abroad.³⁸

A cannabis laboratory found near the Izvor border crossing point, northern Kosovo.

Photo: Kosovo Police

In February 2022, a laboratory was discovered on the seventh floor of a mill in Suhareka, near Prizren, in south Kosovo. The mill was chosen to avoid raising suspicion about the high energy consumption.³⁹ Police seized more than 2 000 plants and 3.2 kilograms of cannabis, with a market value of over €1 million.⁴⁰

The profile and nationality of the perpetrators varied by the region in which laboratories were located, but all were men between the ages of 20 and 40.⁴¹ Serbian citizens and ethnic Serbs from Kosovo were arrested in the laboratories detected in the north. In the Suhareka laboratory, two Kosovars were arrested, along with a Turkish national and four citizens of North Macedonia. The latter, all of whom were engineers, are suspected of being experts in installing equipment and cultivation activities in Suhareka and other labs in the north. Authorities suspect that the Turkish national cooperated with this group to transport cannabis to Turkey.⁴² Nationals of North Macedonia were also arrested in laboratories discovered in Pristina. While some of those arrested have a criminal background, there is no indication of whether they are part of a criminal organization.⁴³

Figure 4 Nationality/ethnicity of those arrested for indoor cannabis cultivation, 2019–2022.

Source: Kosovo Police

Indoor cultivation of cannabis is increasingly popular in the Western Balkans, in line with the trend in Europe and worldwide. Law enforcement agencies should allocate adequate resources and prioritize detecting individuals and criminal groups engaged in indoor cultivation, as well as their illegal drug laboratories. As we have seen in Kosovo, indoor cannabis cultivation is a transnational organized crime in which trends in one country easily affect others. Cannabis production in Albania and the transfer of know-how from legalized cannabis production in North Macedonia have affected illicit cannabis production in Kosovo and the region. Thus, law enforcement agencies in the region need to proactively exchange information and enhance cooperation.

Kosovo’s results in 2022 were achieved by the effectiveness of enhanced cooperation between law enforcement and the prosecution, in which the Kosovo police played a significant role. Law enforcement agencies were thus able to keep indoor cannabis cultivation under control. However, as criminal groups continuously adapt their business model, it will be challenging for law enforcement to keep pace.

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