The rural commune of central Antsahabe in northern Madagascar is a fertile region for agriculture: cash crops such as cocoa, coffee, and the vanilla for which Madagascar is famous are all produced here. Yet there is another crop that is a major source of income for communities in the region: cannabis.
Despite Madagascar being a large-scale producer of cannabis, with high levels of domestic consumption, cultivation, sale and consumption of cannabis are strictly illegal in Madagascar. The situation remains even as legalization for medicinal and recreational use is fast becoming a reality elsewhere in eastern and southern Africa.1 Madagascar’s law 97-039, which governs control of narcotic drugs, also applies to cannabis. Available at: http://www.justice.mg/wp-content/uploads/textes/1TEXTES%20NATIONAUX/DROIT%20PRIVE/Textes%20sur%20le%20penal/lois/Loi%2097-039.pdf. Close footnote
‘At the economic level, cannabis could be a very profitable source of revenue for local authorities,’ said Mr Armel, the mayor of Antsahabe. ‘The risk lies in management at the level of public health and local consumption.’2 Interview, Mayor Armel, Antsahabe, February 2021. Close footnote Ibid. Close footnote
The mountainous region Analabe, part of the Ambanja district where Antsahabe is located, is one of the primary regions of cannabis cultivation in Madagascar. Yet Armel’s wish that cultivation could be transformed into a profitable and regulated legal market faces challenges: political resistance to cannabis legalization, the environmental impact of cannabis production and insecurity in remote cannabis-producing areas.
In 2017, Lesotho became the first country in Africa to issue licenses for the production of medicinal cannabis, which has quickly led to large-scale international investment to develop the sector in the landlocked mountain kingdom.4 Emma Vickers, Cannabis kingdom: High hopes and early stumbles in Lesotho, CannabisWire, 9 November 2019, https://cannabiswire.com/2019/11/09/cannabis-kingdom-high-hopes-and-early-stumbles-in-lesotho. Close footnote Luke Daniel, A Lesotho dagga grower just landed Africa’s first approval to sell to the EU, Business Insider South Africa, 16 April 2021, https://www.businessinsider.co.zaa-lesotho-dagga-grower-just-landed-africas-first-approval-to-sell-to-the-eu-2021-4. Close footnote
Other countries in eastern and southern Africa have since followed suit. In October 2020, Rwanda became the latest country in the region to approve medical cannabis production for export,6 Ivan R Mugisha, Fred Oluoch and Halima Abdallah, East Africa could become a major cannabis export hub, 17 October 2020, https://www.businessinsider.co.za/a-lesotho-dagga-grower-just-landed-africas-first-approval-to-sell-to-the-eu-2021-4. Close footnote AfricaNews, Uganda to issue guidelines for growing, exporting marijuana, 28 January 2020, https://www.africanews.com/2020/01/28/uganda-to-issue-guidelines-for-growing-exporting-marijuana//; Liam Taylor, On a high: Growing cannabis in Uganda, African Business, 12 January 2021, https://african.business/2021/01/trade-investment/on-a-high-growing-cannabis-in-uganda/. Close footnote Daniel Mumbure, Malawi becomes latest African country to embrace cannabis, 28 February 2020, https://www.africanews.com/2020/02/28/african-countries-embrace-cannabis-zambia-south-africa-zimbabwe-lesotho//. Close footnote
South Africa, which in 2018 became the first country in the region to legalize cannabis production and consumption for recreational use (but not for sale) through a ruling by its Constitutional Court, recently released a draft national master plan for the development of the commercial cannabis market, for both local consumption and export.9 Cannabiz Africa, Let the games begin: National cannabis master plan finally surfaces, call for public input, 29 March 2021, https://www.cannabiz-africa.com/national-cannabis-master-plan/. Full text of the draft plan is available here: https://www.cannabiz-africa.com/sa-cannabis-master-plan-v5/. Close footnote
In the Seychelles, cannabis use for medicinal purposes (but not cultivation as a crop) was approved by law in July 2020.10 Misuse of drugs (Cannabidiol-based products for medical purposes) Regulations 2020, https://seylii.org/sc/legislation/si/2020/25-0. Close footnote Seychelles News Agency (via AllAfrica), Legalisation of medical cannabis in Seychelles takes step forward, 13 May 2020, https://allafrica.com/stories/202005130674.html. Close footnote Alain St Ange, One Seychelles’ drive toward the legalization of marijuana, LinkedIn post, published 9 July 2020, https://www.linkedin.com/pulse/one-seychelles-drive-toward-legalization-marijuana-alain-st-ange/?articleId=6686924765749403648; Özgür Töre, Would you like to travel to Seychelles for marijuana tourism?, FTN News, 19 August 2020, https://ftnnews.com/tours/40103-would-you-like-to-travel-to-seychelles-for-marijuana-tourism. Close footnote Today in Seychelles, The great cannabis debate!, 2 October 2020, available at: https://web.facebook.com/todayinsey/posts/friday-2-october-2020the-great-cannabis-debateis-seychelles-ready-for-the-legali/3337116889659431/?_rdc=1&_rdr. Close footnote Some stakeholders see this as a key element of the response to exploding synthetic cannabinoid use in Mauritius. Close footnote
These developments have led to optimistic analysis that the crop could be a new ‘green gold’ for Africa.15 Julien Clémençot, Cannabis: An African green gold rush, The Africa Report, 6 November 2019, https://www.theafricareport.com/19723/cannabis-an-african-green-gold-rush/. Close footnote Prohibition Partners, Africa cannabis market could be worth over $US 7.1 billion annually by 2023, 21 March 2019, https://prohibitionpartners.com/2019/03/21/africas-legal-cannabis-market-could-be-worth-over-us-7-1-billion-annually-by-2023/. Close footnote James Maposa, Southern Africa’s cannabis industry offers opportunity for open-minded investors, 8 May 2020, https://mg.co.za/opinion/2020-05-08-southern-africas-cannabis-industry-offers-opportunity-for-open-minded-investors/; Birguid, Southern African cannabis industry analysis, April 2020 (executive summary available from: http://birguid.co.za/master/download_files/2020-05-11_Birguid_Southern_African_Cannabis_Industry_Analysis_14.04.2020_EXEC_SUMMARY.pdf). Close footnote
Figure 2 Cannabis production hotspots and trafficking flows in and from Madagascar, and quantity of cannabis seized in each region by the Gendarmerie Nationale in 2020.
Note: The Gendarmerie is not the only authority that makes drugs seizures in Madagascar: the national police and customs authorities also make seizures in their respective jurisdictions. The Gendarmerie seizures, however, are indicative of major cannabis production areas and trafficking points.
Source: Madagascar Gendarmerie Nationale.
In several ways, the cannabis market in Lesotho parallels that of Madagascar. The mountainous ranges of both countries provide environments well suited to growing cannabis. In both countries, cannabis was grown traditionally for many years before being criminalized under colonial rule, and cultivation then continued as an illicit market supplementing the incomes of subsistence-farming communities.18 Emma Vickers, Cannabis kingdom: High hopes and early stumbles in Lesotho, CannabisWire, 9 November 2019, https://cannabiswire.com/2019/11/09/cannabis-kingdom-high-hopes-and-early-stumbles-in-lesotho/. Close footnote
In the countries that have embraced the development of cannabis markets, whether for medicinal, industrial (such as for hemp production) or recreational purposes, the policy shift is widely expected to bring economic benefit. Yet regulating the sector has its challenges. In Lesotho, for example, small-scale local growers have faced steep fees for cannabis-production licenses, which some say sways the market in favour of multinational companies and forces smaller growers onto the black market.19 Emma Vickers, Cannabis kingdom: High hopes and early stumbles in Lesotho, CannabisWire, 9 November 2019, https://cannabiswire.com/2019/11/09/cannabis-kingdom-high-hopes-and-early-stumbles-in-lesotho/. Close footnote Majirata Latela, Minister probes cannabis licensing, The Reporter Lesotho, 26 August 2020, https://www.thereporter.co.ls/2020/08/26/minister-probes-cannabis-licensing/ Close footnote
In Zambia, Peter Sinkamba, president of the opposition Green Party, summed up how the benefits of cannabis production may also bring risks: ‘Depending on how properly this is done, this could just change the face of Zambia’s economy,’ he said in an interview with Reuters. ‘This could be a blessing or a curse, like diamonds and gold, depending on the policy direction.’21 Daniel Mumbure, Malawi becomes latest African country to embrace cannabis, 28 February 2020, https://www.africanews.com/2020/02/28/african-countries-embrace-cannabis-zambia-south-africa-zimbabwe-lesotho//. Close footnote
Figure 3 Cannabis prices in the Indian Ocean islands, 2020.
Note: GI-TOC drug pricing surveys in Indian Ocean islands found that cannabis prices in Madagascar were on average 0.03 USD per gram in 2020, the lowest recorded in the islands. This reflects the large supply of cannabis grown domestically in Madagascar. In Mauritius, cannabis prices have risen significantly in recent years to the point it is described as a ‘luxury’ item.
Source: Based on findings from GI-TOC drug pricing surveys in the island states, 2020.
Madagascar is the most significant producer of cannabis among the western Indian Ocean islands. The major regions of production – Betroka in the south and Analabe in the north – largely supply domestic markets, particularly Madagascar’s urban centres, including the capital, Antananarivo. Some cannabis is also smuggled to other island states, including the Seychelles, Mauritius, the Comoros and Mayotte.22 Interview, Colonel Marly Mamy Ramaromisamalala, head of counter-narcotics in the high command of the Gendarmerie Nationale, 26 February 2021, by phone. Close footnote Information gathered in GI-TOC field research, June and July 2020. Close footnote
Consumption and sale of cannabis in Madagascar are widespread. Reliable estimates of consumption are not widely available, but figures do suggest high levels of recreational use. The latest statistics reported by the Malagasy government to the UN Office on Drugs and Crime’s annual data-gathering exercise indicate a 9.1% prevalence of cannabis use among the adult population; 24 Available at: https://dataunodc.un.org/data/drugs/Prevalence-general (accessed 20/4/21). Note that this figure is used to calculate the cannabis consumption rate in the Prohibition Partners’ Africa Cannabis Report, 2019. Available for download from: https://prohibitionpartners.com. Close footnote New Frontier Data, Top cannabis usage by country, 28 April 2019, https://newfrontierdata.com/cannabis-insights/cannabis-usage-by-country/. Close footnote 420 Intel, These are the top 10 cannabis-consuming countries in Africa, 31 May 2019, https://420intel.com/articles/2019/05/31/these-are-top-10-cannabis-consuming-countries-africa. Close footnote
Estimates for the amount of cannabis produced in Madagascar are also elusive, yet reports from law enforcement operations give a sense of its scale. Madagascar’s Gendarmerie Nationale seized close to 53 tonnes of cannabis in 2020,27 Information shared with the GI-TOC by the Gendarmerie Nationale, February 2021. Close footnote For example: Hajatiana Léonard, Ambanja – six tonnes de cannabis saisies [six tonnes of cannabis seized], l’Express Madagascar, 22 December 2020, https://lexpress.mg/22/12/2020/ambanja-six-tonnes-de-cannabis-saisies/, Hajatiana Léonard, Ambanja – près de trois tonnes de cannabis saisies [close to three tonnes of cannabis seized], l’Express Madagascar,14 October 2020, https://lexpress.mg/14/10/2020/ambanja-pres-de-trois-tonnes-de-cannabis-saisis/. Close footnote Information shared by the communication and public relations service of the Gendarmerie Nationale, February 2021. Close footnote
‘Millions, even billions, of ariary of profit are circulating in the sector, especially in the production zones of Analabe in the Ambanja district and that of the district of Betroka. Likewise, for the consumption zones like Antananarivo, cannabis brings in profit for big bosses and dealers,’ said Tantely Ramamonjisoa, commissioner of the antinarcotics division of the national police. ‘Big sums of money are at stake, which leads to the difficulty of eradicating this danger from society,’ he concluded.30 Interview, Commissioner Tantely Ramamonjisoa, February 2021. Close footnote
According to Armel, the Analabe region attracts trafficking networks from across the country. ‘There are traffickers coming from Mahajanga, Antananarivo and other provinces of Madagascar,’ he said.31 Interview, Mayor Armel, Antsahabe, February 2021. Close footnote Testimony from residents of the fokontany (local government areas) of Antanambao Amboangisay, Antahavary, Bizogno and central Antsahabe, Ambanja district, February 2021. Close footnote
Madagascar’s Gendarmerie Nationale carry out an operation to destroy cannabis fields in Analabe, Ambanja district, in the north of Madagascar. In this operation, which took place in July 2020, over 100 hectares of cannabis were burned and more than a dozen cannabis farmers were arrested.
Photo: Gendarmerie Nationale, Madagascar
A bottle used to inhale cannabis oil, Analabe Ambanja, February 2021.
Photo: Riana Raymonde Randrianarisoa
The mountainous region of Analabe Ambanja, in northern Madagascar, is a hub for cannabis production. Here, a local resident demonstrates how cannabis oil is inhaled through a bottle.
Photo: Riana Raymonde Randrianarisoa
Although some residents collaborate with law enforcement officials, serving as informers or guides in remote areas, a significant proportion of the population cooperates with trafficking networks. Local young people work with cannabis producers in cannabis fields or participate in transporting cannabis to and from collection points, using their knowledge of the local terrain.33 This information was confirmed by local residents and the regional compagnie territoriale of the gendarmerie. Close footnote Interviews and focus groups with local residents, Analabe, February 2021. Close footnote
Cannabis is transported on foot, with journeys continuing for two days or more. Produce is taken from the fields to either trucks (for transport to urban markets) or warehouses in neighbouring cities such as Ambilobe. ‘For the transit from Analabe to Ambanja town, there are several options. Either over land, by car or on foot, or transferred by river. Finally there is the sea route for exports destined to the Comoros, Mayotte and other Indian Ocean islands. These journeys earn money, and there are enormous sums invested,’ said Armel.35 Interview, Mayor Armel, Antsahabe, February 2021, translated from French. Close footnote Information shared by the gendarmerie unit at Ambanja, February 2021. Close footnote
Those in charge of trafficking networks invest large sums to purchase cannabis, transport it and secure safe delivery. According to members of the local community in Analabe, local farmers may sell a kilogram of green cannabis at 20 000 ariary (AR). This is reportedly comparable to prices for cocoa, which depending on the season will sell for around AR25 000. Traffickers’ expenses for ensuring safe transport of the product to warehouses (for example, in Antananarivo) can amount to more than that sum per kilogram. ‘But this amount varies, according to the trafficker involved,’ explained Tombo Simon, a young dealer based in Ambanja. ‘In our experience, from time to time and especially when we have more orders than usual, the transporters and farmers raise their prices. They also play on the rule of supply and demand,’ he added. When finally sold to consumers, a kilogram of cannabis can earn a trafficker between AR100 000 and AR150 000.37 Interview, Tombo Simon (name has been changed), Ambanja, February 2021, translated from French. Close footnote
Local government figures such as Armel and members of the community expressed their support for creating a legalized cannabis market as a way of regularizing the profits and livelihoods that the trade brings to the local area.38 Interview, Mayor Armel, Antsahabe, February 2021. Close footnote Edward Carver, Marijuana cultivation whittling away Madagascar’s largest connected forest, Mongabay, 29 May 2020, https://news.mongabay.com/2020/05/marijuana-cultivation-whittling-away-madagascars-largest-connected-forest/. Close footnote
Communities also report that cannabis trafficking groups in Analabe are heavily armed and impose their own rule of law in production areas.40 Interviews and focus groups with local residents, Analabe, February 2021. Close footnote Interview, Lieutenant Tahiana Antrefinomenjanahary, coordination officer at the Gendarmerie Nationale, Ambanja, February 2021. Close footnote Global Initiative against Transnational Organized Crime, Civil society observatory of illicit economies in Eastern and Southern Africa, Risk Bulletin, Issue 11, August-September 2020, https://globalinitiative.net/analysis/esaobs-risk-bulletin-11/. Close footnote
Colonel Mamy Marly Ramaromisamalala, head of the counter-narcotics unit in the high command of the Gendarmerie Nationale, gave more details. ‘In the case of Analabe Ambanja, even the gendarmes cannot venture into the forests, because the traffickers have Kalashnikovs. They shoot without warning … all military interventions in these regions demand specific precautions. We are very careful, because the traffickers benefit from their mastery of the terrain and support of the surrounding inhabitants.’
Lieutenant Tahiana Antrefinomenjanahary regards the cannabis market as a major factor in criminality and insecurity in the Analabe region. In his view, and also that of other law enforcement bodies in the region, the fight against organized cannabis-trafficking groups is one of their key priorities.43 Interview, Lieutenant Tahiana Antrefinomenjanahary, coordination officer at the Gendarmerie Nationale, Ambanja, February 2021. Close footnote
Police resources in Madagascar are limited, which have rendered it difficult for police to control a vast and criminalized cannabis market effectively. In Madagascar’s cities there is, on average, only one officer of the national police for every 3 000 inhabitants; in rural areas, where the Gendarmerie Nationale has jurisdiction, there is one gendarme for every 4 000 residents.44 Information shared by the human resources service of the ministry of public security in Madagascar, and the public relations department of the Gendarmerie Nationale, February 2021. Close footnote
According to Raherimaminirainy Zoly Miandrisoa, former commander of the Gendarmerie Nationale brigade at Djamanjary on the island of Nosy Be, law enforcement in Madagascar does not have sufficient means to pursue cases of international export of cannabis. ‘For the moment, we are content with local arrests of consumers and dealers,’ he reported.45 Interview, adjoint chief, Raherimaminirainy Zoly Miandrisoa, former commander of the Gendarmerie Nationale brigade at Djamanjar, Nosy Be, February 2021. Close footnote
Colonel Mamy Marly Ramaromisamalala, head of the counter-narcotics unit in the high command of the Gendarmerie Nationale, displays a seized container filled with cannabis oil, February 2021.
Photo: Riana Raymonde Randrianarisoa
One widely used argument in favour of creating legal cannabis markets is that it could free up overstretched police resources to be used in countering more serious and violent crimes. Yet in Analabe, creating an effective regulated market would mean confronting groups involved in the cannabis market who present a violent challenge to the rule of law.
The legalization of cannabis in Madagascar, for any purpose, does not seem to be a major political possibility in the near future, in contrast to the situation in other countries in the region. The optimism of the population of Analabe and local political leaders has not yet resulted in a political shift at the national level. If Madagascar were to follow the example of other eastern and southern African countries, any new policy would face a complex balance between the potential economic benefit to rural communities, governance issues endemic in cannabis-producing regions, and concerns about the effect on biodiversity and the unique ecosystems of Madagascar.
Madagascar’s law 97-039, which governs control of narcotic drugs, also applies to cannabis. Available at: http://www.justice.mg/wp-content/uploads/textes/1TEXTES%20NATIONAUX/DROIT%20PRIVE/Textes%20sur%20le%20penal/lois/Loi%2097-039.pdf.
Emma Vickers, Cannabis kingdom: High hopes and early stumbles in Lesotho, CannabisWire, 9 November 2019, https://cannabiswire.com/2019/11/09/cannabis-kingdom-high-hopes-and-early-stumbles-in-lesotho.
Luke Daniel, A Lesotho dagga grower just landed Africa’s first approval to sell to the EU, Business Insider South Africa, 16 April 2021, https://www.businessinsider.co.zaa-lesotho-dagga-grower-just-landed-africas-first-approval-to-sell-to-the-eu-2021-4.
Ivan R Mugisha, Fred Oluoch and Halima Abdallah, East Africa could become a major cannabis export hub, 17 October 2020, https://www.businessinsider.co.za/a-lesotho-dagga-grower-just-landed-africas-first-approval-to-sell-to-the-eu-2021-4.
AfricaNews, Uganda to issue guidelines for growing, exporting marijuana, 28 January 2020, https://www.africanews.com/2020/01/28/uganda-to-issue-guidelines-for-growing-exporting-marijuana//; Liam Taylor, On a high: Growing cannabis in Uganda, African Business, 12 January 2021, https://african.business/2021/01/trade-investment/on-a-high-growing-cannabis-in-uganda/.
Daniel Mumbure, Malawi becomes latest African country to embrace cannabis, 28 February 2020, https://www.africanews.com/2020/02/28/african-countries-embrace-cannabis-zambia-south-africa-zimbabwe-lesotho//.
Cannabiz Africa, Let the games begin: National cannabis master plan finally surfaces, call for public input, 29 March 2021, https://www.cannabiz-africa.com/national-cannabis-master-plan/. Full text of the draft plan is available here: https://www.cannabiz-africa.com/sa-cannabis-master-plan-v5/.
Misuse of drugs (Cannabidiol-based products for medical purposes) Regulations 2020, https://seylii.org/sc/legislation/si/2020/25-0.
Seychelles News Agency (via AllAfrica), Legalisation of medical cannabis in Seychelles takes step forward, 13 May 2020, https://allafrica.com/stories/202005130674.html.
Alain St Ange, One Seychelles’ drive toward the legalization of marijuana, LinkedIn post, published 9 July 2020, https://www.linkedin.com/pulse/one-seychelles-drive-toward-legalization-marijuana-alain-st-ange/?articleId=6686924765749403648; Özgür Töre, Would you like to travel to Seychelles for marijuana tourism?, FTN News, 19 August 2020, https://ftnnews.com/tours/40103-would-you-like-to-travel-to-seychelles-for-marijuana-tourism.
Today in Seychelles, The great cannabis debate!, 2 October 2020, available at: https://web.facebook.com/todayinsey/posts/friday-2-october-2020the-great-cannabis-debateis-seychelles-ready-for-the-legali/3337116889659431/?_rdc=1&_rdr.
Some stakeholders see this as a key element of the response to exploding synthetic cannabinoid use in Mauritius.
Julien Clémençot, Cannabis: An African green gold rush, The Africa Report, 6 November 2019, https://www.theafricareport.com/19723/cannabis-an-african-green-gold-rush/.
Prohibition Partners, Africa cannabis market could be worth over $US 7.1 billion annually by 2023, 21 March 2019, https://prohibitionpartners.com/2019/03/21/africas-legal-cannabis-market-could-be-worth-over-us-7-1-billion-annually-by-2023/.
James Maposa, Southern Africa’s cannabis industry offers opportunity for open-minded investors, 8 May 2020, https://mg.co.za/opinion/2020-05-08-southern-africas-cannabis-industry-offers-opportunity-for-open-minded-investors/; Birguid, Southern African cannabis industry analysis, April 2020 (executive summary available from: http://birguid.co.za/master/download_files/2020-05-11_Birguid_Southern_African_Cannabis_Industry_Analysis_14.04.2020_EXEC_SUMMARY.pdf).
Emma Vickers, Cannabis kingdom: High hopes and early stumbles in Lesotho, CannabisWire, 9 November 2019, https://cannabiswire.com/2019/11/09/cannabis-kingdom-high-hopes-and-early-stumbles-in-lesotho/.
Emma Vickers, Cannabis kingdom: High hopes and early stumbles in Lesotho, CannabisWire, 9 November 2019, https://cannabiswire.com/2019/11/09/cannabis-kingdom-high-hopes-and-early-stumbles-in-lesotho/.
Majirata Latela, Minister probes cannabis licensing, The Reporter Lesotho, 26 August 2020, https://www.thereporter.co.ls/2020/08/26/minister-probes-cannabis-licensing/
Daniel Mumbure, Malawi becomes latest African country to embrace cannabis, 28 February 2020, https://www.africanews.com/2020/02/28/african-countries-embrace-cannabis-zambia-south-africa-zimbabwe-lesotho//.
Interview, Colonel Marly Mamy Ramaromisamalala, head of counter-narcotics in the high command of the Gendarmerie Nationale, 26 February 2021, by phone.
Information gathered in GI-TOC field research, June and July 2020.
Available at: https://dataunodc.un.org/data/drugs/Prevalence-general (accessed 20/4/21). Note that this figure is used to calculate the cannabis consumption rate in the Prohibition Partners’ Africa Cannabis Report, 2019. Available for download from: https://prohibitionpartners.com.
New Frontier Data, Top cannabis usage by country, 28 April 2019, https://newfrontierdata.com/cannabis-insights/cannabis-usage-by-country/.
420 Intel, These are the top 10 cannabis-consuming countries in Africa, 31 May 2019, https://420intel.com/articles/2019/05/31/these-are-top-10-cannabis-consuming-countries-africa.
Information shared with the GI-TOC by the Gendarmerie Nationale, February 2021.
For example: Hajatiana Léonard, Ambanja – six tonnes de cannabis saisies [six tonnes of cannabis seized], l’Express Madagascar, 22 December 2020, https://lexpress.mg/22/12/2020/ambanja-six-tonnes-de-cannabis-saisies/, Hajatiana Léonard, Ambanja – près de trois tonnes de cannabis saisies [close to three tonnes of cannabis seized], l’Express Madagascar,14 October 2020, https://lexpress.mg/14/10/2020/ambanja-pres-de-trois-tonnes-de-cannabis-saisis/.
Information shared by the communication and public relations service of the Gendarmerie Nationale, February 2021.
Interview, Commissioner Tantely Ramamonjisoa, February 2021.
Testimony from residents of the fokontany (local government areas) of Antanambao Amboangisay, Antahavary, Bizogno and central Antsahabe, Ambanja district, February 2021.
This information was confirmed by local residents and the regional compagnie territoriale of the gendarmerie.
Interviews and focus groups with local residents, Analabe, February 2021.
Interview, Mayor Armel, Antsahabe, February 2021, translated from French.
Information shared by the gendarmerie unit at Ambanja, February 2021.
Interview, Tombo Simon (name has been changed), Ambanja, February 2021, translated from French.
Edward Carver, Marijuana cultivation whittling away Madagascar’s largest connected forest, Mongabay, 29 May 2020, https://news.mongabay.com/2020/05/marijuana-cultivation-whittling-away-madagascars-largest-connected-forest/.
Interviews and focus groups with local residents, Analabe, February 2021.
Interview, Lieutenant Tahiana Antrefinomenjanahary, coordination officer at the Gendarmerie Nationale, Ambanja, February 2021.
Global Initiative against Transnational Organized Crime, Civil society observatory of illicit economies in Eastern and Southern Africa, Risk Bulletin, Issue 11, August-September 2020, https://globalinitiative.net/analysis/esaobs-risk-bulletin-11/.
Interview, Lieutenant Tahiana Antrefinomenjanahary, coordination officer at the Gendarmerie Nationale, Ambanja, February 2021.
Information shared by the human resources service of the ministry of public security in Madagascar, and the public relations department of the Gendarmerie Nationale, February 2021.
Interview, adjoint chief, Raherimaminirainy Zoly Miandrisoa, former commander of the Gendarmerie Nationale brigade at Djamanjar, Nosy Be, February 2021.